Ahmad, Syed Nesar. Origins of Muslim Consciousness in India: A World-system Perspective. New York: Greenwood, 1991. Print.

Argument of book: “Initial cultural differences between the Hindus and the Muslims widened and gained social significance as a consequence of the structural impact of India’s integration in the world system.” P. 1

Chapter 2: Impact of Early British Rule: The Rise of Islamic Revivalist Movements

·         Led to Islamic revivalist movements that would help Muslim reclaim their identity (21)

·         Revivalist movement means higher buy-in but yet also more serious adherence to religion (strict observance of Islamic rituals)

·         In the process, the revivalist movements created division between Hinduism and Islam (21)

·         Revivals occurred in places of Muslim power or high population (Bengal, Bihar, United Provinces)

·         Historical setting: Social, Economic, and Political Upheaval in late 1700s and early 1800s (23)

o   Mughal empire losing power

o   India opening to worldwide trade

o   Local chiefs starting claiming supremacy

o   Some local businesses starting and then failing

·         Movements:

o   Faraidi Movement (revivalist group preaching puritanical Islam; arose after 1793) (p.24)

o   Titu Mir’s Movement (1827-1831): Fundamentalist movement; attracted Muslim peasants and weaver who worked under Hindu Zamindars (p.27)

o   Mu jahiddin Movement: (1824-1831): Military campaign in northern India; against Sikhs for breaking away from Mughal rule

·         Economic turmoil in India due to a growing middle class trying to participate in business endeavors (32)

·         Depression in 1820s and 1830s possibly created conflict between Muslims and Hindus vying for same economic opportunities (32)

·         Book’s contention: Group of Muslim respond to increased competition and economic pressure through revivalist Islamic movements (32)

Chapter 3: Rise of the Modernists Among the Muslims: Impact of the “Great Depression”

·         Hindu-Muslim conflict more intense at end of 1800s

o   Rivalries between Hindus and modernizing Muslim elites (72)

·         Goals of Muslim Modernists in India at the end of the nineteenth century (75)

o   Reconciliation between Muslim subjects and the British Empire

o   Education of Muslims in Western art and science

o   Promoting Muslim loyalty to British Empire

o   Catch up with Hindus in the process of Westernization

Question: Why did the modern elite develop as a Muslim consciousness movement and not an Indian consciousness movement? (75)

·         Muslim elite identity before British rule (76)

o   Awareness of Muslim identity in pre-colonial age

o   Consciousness of a foreigner

o   Awareness of Hindus incorporated into upper administration (especially after time of Akbar)

o   Conclusion: Identity based on being different religion and also superior outsider (77)

·         Theme at end of nineteenth century: Exclusivity of Muslim community (107)

·         However, Muslim leader Sayyid Ahmad did try to unite Hindu and Muslim elite to oppose Congress (both groups feared Congress); did not work because tension between Muslim elite and Hindu merchant and professional class (107)

·         Indian capitalist class felt restricted in home market due to the limitations of being a colony.  This class started an anti-colonial movement, a nationalist movement to unite all Indians, Muslims and Hindus (130)

·         Uneven economic development after WWI:

o   Hindus benefited from war but feel constrained economically by being a colony

o   Muslim did not benefit or declined in prosperity during WWI

·         Failure of national unity between Muslims and Hindus

o   “Decline of radical, anti-imperialist politics and the rise of politics that was based on religious rivalry and antagonism” (152)

Chapter 4: The Rise and Decline of Hindu-Muslim Unity (1914-1929)

·         1914-1922: Large number of Hindus and Muslims unite in an anti-colonial struggle (117)

·         Collapse of Hindu-Muslim alliance due to struggle for power: Morley-Minto reforms increased the divisions between Hindus and Muslims

Chapter 5: Impact of the Depression and the Second World War on Muslim Separatism in India

·         Long discussion about how the economic depression and WWII helped cause the separation of India and Pakistan in 1947